Medieval India

 

Medieval Indian History

After the death of Harshavardhana India witnessed significant changes, this period is also known as twilight of ancient India.

  • Pataliputra permanently lost its prominence as symbol of sovereignty of India.
  • Kanyakubja (kannauj) became symbol of sovereignty of India in early medieval times.
  • For the control of kanyakubja (Ganga Yamuna doab region) three Indian dynasties waged continuous wars, which is known as triangular warfare. Palas , Prathiharas  and Rashtrakutas  participated in warfare.
  • Decentralization was on its peak, paved ways for emergence of Indian feudalism.
  • Many regional powers emerged powerful, political unity of India was shattered into pieces.
  • A new ruling clan RAJPUTS

kannauj triangle

Major Dynasties of Early Medieval Period

The Pratiharas

Source:

  • Prithvirajraso written by Chandbadrai is the first major source for Rajput history.
  • According to this book Rajputs were originated from a fire sacrifice performed at Mt.Abu .
  • Prithviraj Raso is considered as the one of first book in Hindi language.
  • Colnel James Todd wrote “Annals of Rajputana” or “ Rajasthan Kathavali”,According to James Todd Rajputs were descedents of HUNs
  • Somadeva suri’s “Kathasaritha sagara” also gives details of Rajputs
  • Rashtrakuta poet Pampa also mention about Gujara in his book.

Political history:

  • They ruled Rajasthan and Gujrat region
  • They claimed their origin from Laxman.
  • Prathiharas acted as bulwarks against Islamic invaders
  • Nagabhatta- 1 was most famous and prominent king , he came into conflict with Rashtrakuta king Dhruva(tripartiate warfare for Kannauj)
  • Nagabhtta was followed by Vatsaraja
  • Vatsaraja defeated Dharmapala of Pala dynasty, but lost to Dhruv of Rashtrakuta dynasty.
  • Mihirbhoj was greatest among Prathiharas, he defeated Narayanpala of Pala . He ruled long for 46 years.
  • Mihirbhoj was mentioned by Arab travelers .Abu suleman called him king Juzr, al-masudi called king Baura.
  • Last king Rajyapala was defeated by Krishna 3 of Rashtrakuta and Ghazni mohammed.
  • From 1000 AD onwards Prathiharas became weak due to internal conflicts and rise in feudal lords.
  • This lead to fragmentation of Rajput

(Note: details of these Rajput kingdoms will be covered under subheading Rajput kingdoms)

Architecture:

  • There are notable examples of architecture from the Gurjara-Pratihara era, including sculptures and carved panels.
  • They started Maru- Gujara  style of architecture
  • Examples:
    • Bateshwar Hindu temples complex, located near Gwalior(MP) Dedicated to Shiva, Vishnu and Shakti.
    • Baroli temple complex

The Palas

PALAS (750-1162 AD)

Political History

 

The Pala dynasty ruled from 8th century to 12th century CE in the regions comprising Bihar and Bengal.

  • Sashanka, the Gauda ruler, believed to have ruled between 590 and 625 CE, is considered the frst prominent king of ancient Bengal. After the fall of the Gauda kingdom, there was no central authority, which led to recurring wars between petty chieftains.
    So, in 750 CE, a group of chiefs met and decided on a “Kshatriya chief ” named  Gopala to be their ruler.
  • Gopala I was succeeded by his son

Dharmapala (770–815 CE  ),  he was the first to control Kanyakubja.

  • His title was uttarapatha swamin(master of northern India)
  • Dharmapala established vikramashila, Jagaddella,
  • He patronised Harisbhadra, a Buddhist writer.
  • Dharmapala’s son Devapala extended Pala control eastwards up to Kamarupa (Assam). He defeated Amoghavarsha, the Rashtrakuta ruler.
  • Devapala was succeeded by Vigramapala, Rajyapala, Gopala III, Vigramapala II.
  • The fortunes of the dynasty, however, were revived by Mahipala I, son of Vigramapala II. He checked the advancement of Cholas beyond the Ganges.
  • Abdul suleman visited Pala kingdom during his tenure.
  • Vijayasena of the Sena dynasty who had become powerful by then in northern Bengal expelled the last ruler Madanapala (1130–1150 CE) from Bengal and established his dynastic rule.

Important Rulers 

  • GOPALA
  • DHARMAPALA
  • MAHIPALA

Language 
Sanskrit, Prakrit, Pali

Religion 

  • The Palas were great patrons of Mahayana Buddhism. The Buddhist philosopher Haribhadra was the spiritual preceptor of Dharmapala.

Architecture 

  • Various mahaviharas,Stupas ,chaityas,temples and forts were constructed. Most of the architecture was religious with the first two hundred years dominated by Buddhist art and the last two hundred years by Hindu art.
  • Among the various mahaviharas ,Nalanda,vikramashila,somapura,Traikutaka,Devikota ,Pandita ,Jagaddala vihara are notable. Planned residential buildings for monks were made.
  • A large number of manuscripts on palm-leaf relating to the Buddhist themes were written and illustrated with the images of Buddhist deities at these centres which also had workshops for the casting of bronze images.
  • Somapura mahavihara at Paharpur ,a creation of Dharmapala is one of the largest Buddhist vihara in Indian sub continent ,its architectural plan had influenced the architecture of countries like Myanmar and Indonesia.

Painting 

  • The earliest examples of miniature painting in India exist in the form of illustrations to the religious texts on Buddhism executed under the Palas of the eastern India .
  • There are two forms of painting manuscripts and wall painting.
  • Manuscripts were written on palm leaves.In these paintings scenes of life of Buddha and several god and goddess of Mahayana sects are depicted.            The impact of tantricism on these paintings are easily visible.
  • Red,blue,black and white colours are used a primary colours
  • Pala painting is characterized by sinuous line, delicate and nervous lines ,sensuous elegance, linear and decorative accent and subdued tones of colour.
  • It is naturalistic style which resembles the ideal forms of contemporary bronze and stone sculpture and reflects some feeling of classical art of Ajanta with sensuous bias of art of Eastern India.
  • Wall painting has been found in Saradh and Sarai sthal in Nalanda district. At the bottom of the platform made of granite stone flowers of geometric shapes, images of animals and humans are found.

Pala Sculpture 

  • The Gupta tradition of sculptural art attained a new height under the patronage of Pala rulers .The art incorporated lot of local characteristics in Bengal under the Palas and it continued right up to the end of 12th
  • The sculptures of stones and bronze were constructed in large numbers mostly in monastic sites of nalanda,Bodh Gaya etc
  • Most of the sculptures drew their inspiration from Buddhism. Apart from Buddha sculptures of gods and goddess of Hindu Dharma like surya, Vishnu, Ganesh etc were constructed
  • Generally only frontal parts of the body have been shown in the sculptures. The front as highly detailed and decorated..
  • Bronze casting was an important feature of pala sculptures.
  • The pala style is marked by slim and graceful figures, elaborate jewellery and conventional decoration
  • The main features of pala sculptures is their free flowing movement. Almost all figures are of similar sizes and were carved out of grayish or white spotted sandstone.

Reasons for sudden ending 

  • The Pala art came to a sudden end after the destruction of the Buddhist monasteries at the hands of Muslim invaders in the first half of the 13th century.
  • Some of the monks and artists escaped and fled to Nepal, which helped in reinforcing the existing art traditions there.
  • Ramapala was the last strong Pala ruler. After his death, a rebellion broke out in Kamarupa during his son Kumarapala’s reign. So due to rebellions art was not focussed much.

The Senas

Sources:

  • The Deopara Prashasti, commissioned by Lakshmana Sena, describe the Senas as migrant Brahmaksatriyas from Karnata
  • Copper plates found in Adilpur.

Political history:

  • Senas ruled from Bengal in duing 11th and  12th century.
  • The rulers of the Sena Dynasty traced their origin to the south Indian region of Karnataka.
  • Vijayasena expelled Madanpala (last ruler of Pala dynasty) and started Sena dynasty rule. He was the real founder of Sena kingdom.
  • His son Ballala Sena (1160-1178) introduced the social reforms in Bengal known as Kulinism.
  • Ballalsena was succeeded by Lakshamanasena.
  • Lakshmana sena was the greatest of this dynasty.
  • Towards the close of his reign (Lakshmansena) , he became weak. There was sign of disintegration within his kingdom. Muhammad  Bhaktiyar Khalji,  gave the final blow to the Sena kingdom (1204 AD).

Religion:

  • The rule of the Senas in Bengal is usually connected with the emergence of orthodox Hinduism in a Hindu-Buddhist society which for long had enjoyed the peaceful coexistence of the two religions resulting in an atmosphere of amalgam of the two. The onslaught on the Buddhists in Bengal is believed to have started in this period, which resulted in large scale Buddhist migration to the neighbouring countries.
  • Bhuddism declined in India after Sena’s rule. Many bhuddist universities were plundered by Bhaktiyar Khalji.(Vikaramshila, Odantapuri, Nalanda).

Architecture:

  • Architectural style in Sena dynasty is continuation of  the style of PALAS. No evident change in architectural form can be seen.

Senas are famous for building hindu temples, monastaries. Dhakeshwari temple in Dhaka, Bangladesh is example of temples built during Sena period.

Rashtrakutas

Sources:

  • Ellora and samugarh inscription.
  • S Altekar has written book “Rashtrakuta and their times”

Political history:

  • The Rashtrakutas were originally known to be the feudatories of the Western Chalukyas of Vatapi.
  • Thry ruled from Manyakheta in Karnataka.
  • Dhantidurga was the founder of Rashtrakuta dynasty, he defeated Chalukyas of Badami.
  • Dhantidurga was succeeded by Krishna 1. He constructed Kailasa temple in Ellora.

He defeated  Gangas of Mysore.

  • Krishna was succedded by Govinda 2 followed by DHRUVA
  • Dhruva was greatest in Rashtrakuta dynasty, during his reign Rashtrakuta power reached its Zenith.
    1. He defeated Pallavas, Eastern Chalukyas, Palas and Prathiharas.
    2. By defeating Vatsaraja of Prathihara and Dharmapala of pala dynasty he conquered Kannauj
    3. He was the first Deccan king to control Kannauj.
  • Govinda III succeeded Dhuva. Following his father’s legacy, GovindaIII also waged war against all the adjacent kingdoms(Pallava, Gangas, Pala,Prathihara) and was victorious.
    1. During his reign Rashtrakuta empire extended from Himalayas in north to kanyakumari in south and Saurashtra in the west to west Bengal in the east. Almost whole of India came under the influence of Rashtrakutas.
    2. His titles: Jaggattunga, srivallabha, Tribhuvanadhavala.
  • Amoghavarsha:Govinda III was succeeded by his son Amoghavarsha (814–880 CE)
    1. Amoghavarsha was a patron of literature and he patronised the famous Digambara acharya Jinasena, Sanskrit grammarian Sakatayana and the mathematician Mahaviracharya.
    2. His cultural achievements are greater than his military achievements.
    3. He constructed Manyakheta city and made it as his capital.
    4. Amoghavarsha was himself a great poet and his Kavirajamarga is the earliest Kannada work on poetics.
    5. Abu sulaiman , the Arab traveler visited his capital in 851CE. He says Rashtrakuta empire is one of the four great empires of the world.
    6. His titles: Nrupatunga, veeranarayan etc.
  • Krishna III was the last greatest in Rashtrakuta dynasty.
    1. He defeated Parantaka Chola in battle of Takkolam.
  • Successors of Krishna III  were too weak to save kingdom from its decline.
  • Kakra II was defeated by Tailapadeva.
  • Tailapadeva started rule of kalyani chalukyas.

Religion:

  • Rashtrakuta rulers had great quality of religious tolerance.
  • The worship of Shiva and Vishnu was popular during the Rashtrakuta reign. The famous rock-cut Shiva temple at Ellora was built by Krishna I.
  • Jainism was patronized by laters rulers like Amoghavarsha. He was also staunch devotee of Kolhapur Mahalaxmi .
  • Buddhism had declined and its only important centre was at Kanheri.

Literature:

  • The Rashtrakuta rulers were great patrons of learning. Kannada and Sanskrit literature made great progress during their reign.
  • The three gems of ancient Kannada literature –Pampa, Ranna, Ponna were patronised by Rashtrkuta kings. They wrote following books in kannada
    1. Pampa- Adipurana, vikramarjuna vijaya
    2. Ranna- Gadhayudha
    3. Ponna- Shantipurana
  • Amoghvarsha wrote Kavirajamarga, first book on poetics in kannada( few claim that this was originally written by court port Srivijaya).
  • Mahaveeracharya , a mathematician , wrote Ganithasarasangraha in sanskrit.
  • Halayudha wrote Kavirahasya in Sanskrit.
  • Overall ,Kannada language received great patronage and golden age in this era.

Art and Architecture:

  • The Rashtrakutas made splendid contributions to Indian art.
  • They built structural temple , cave temple and Basadis.
  • Ellora, Ajantha and Elephanta are centres of their art.

Kailasa Temple:

  • As per the historical records, it was built by the 8th century Rashtrakuta King Krishna I between the year 756 and 773 AD. Cave 16, known as the Kailasha temple, is a particularly notable cave temple in India as a result of its size, architecture and having been entirely carved out of a single rock.
  • It is modelled along similar lines to other Hindu temples with
  • a gateway,
  • an assembly hall,
  • a multi-storey main temple surrounded by numerous shrines laid out according to the square principle,
  • an integrated space for circumambulation,
  • a garbha-grihya (sanctum sanctorum) wherein resides the linga-yoni, and a spire-shaped like Mount Kailash – all carved from one rock.
  • Other shrines carved from the same rock are dedicated to Ganga, Yamuna, Saraswati, the ten avatars of Vishnu, Vedic gods and goddesses including Indra, Agni, Vayu, Surya and Usha, as well as non-Vedic deities like Ganesha, Ardhanarishvara (half Shiva, half Parvati), Harihara (half Shiva, half Vishnu), Annapurna, Durga and others.
  • It has a three-tiered sikhara or tower resembling the sikhara of the Mamallapuram rathas.
  • In the interior of the temple there is a pillared hall which has sixteen square pillars.
  • The Kailasa temple is an architectural marvel with it beautiful sculptures.
  • The sculpture of the Goddess Durga is shown as slaying the Buffalo demon.
  • In another sculpture Ravana was making attempts to lift Mount Kailasa, the abode of Siva.
  • The scenes of Ramayana were also depicted on the walls.
  • The general characteristics of the Kailasa temple are more Dravidian.

Dasavathara cave:

Cave 15, Dashavatara Cave is one of the finest at Ellora. The two storeyed temple contains mesmerising Shiva Nataraja and a Shiva emerging from Lingam while Vishnu and Brahma pay homage.

Features of Dashavatara Caves:

  • It has cells and a layout plan that are similar to Buddhist Caves.
  • It also indicates presence of non-Buddhist features, such as a Nrtya Mandapa at its entrance.
  • Hindu temple housed in Cave 15 has an open court with a free-standing monolithic mandapa at the middle and a two-storeyed excavated temple at the rear.
  • Large sculptural panels between the wall columns on the upper floor illustrate a wide range of themes, including the ten avatars of Vishnu.
  • finest relief of this cave is the one depicting the death of Hiranyakashipu, where Vishnu in man-lion (Narasimha) form, emerges from a pillar to lay a fatal hand upon his shoulder.
  • Other reliefs in Cave 15 include the Gangadhara, marriage of Shiva and Parvati, Tripurantika of Shakti tradition, Markendeya, Garuda, aspects of life, Nandi in mandapa, dancing Shiva, Andhakasura, Govardhanadhari, Gajendravarada and others.
  • panels are arranged in dyads, which displays “cooperative but also antagonistic energy” with a mutuality of power transference.

Elephanta cave:

  • Elephanta, which is an island 6 miles from Mumbai has 7 caves.The Portuguese after seeing the large elephant named it elephant.
  • The sculptural art of Rashtrakutas reached its zenith in this place.
  • The sculptures such as Nataraja and Sadashiva excel even that of the Ellora sculptures in
    beauty and crafsmanship.
  • Ardhanarishvara and Maheshamurti are the other famous sculptures.
  • The most imposing figure of this temple is Trimurthi It is said to represent the three aspects of Shiva as creator, preserver and destroyer.

It is a UNESCO world heritage site.

Chola Empire

 

Sources:

  • More than 10,000 inscriptions engraved on copper and stone form the primary sources for the study of Chola history.
  • The inscriptions mainly record the endowments and donations to temples made by rulers and other individuals. Land transactions and taxes (both collections and exemptions) form an important part of their content
  • Besides stone inscriptions, copper plates contain the royal orders. They also contain details of genealogy, wars, conquests, administrative divisions, local governance, land rights and various taxes levied.
  • Literary sources, as tamil literature flourished during this period. Rise in bhakti saints and compilation of hyms reflect sociocultural features of that period       Muvarula, and Kamba Ramayanam, the great epic, belong to this period
  • Uttarameruru Inscription issued by Pranthaka Chola gives details of election to local self governance bodies.

Political history:

  • Records available to us after the Sangam Age show that the Cholas remained as subordinates to the Pallavas in the Kaveri region. The re-emergence of Cholas began with Vijayalaya (850–871 CE) conquering the Kaveri delta from Muttaraiyar. He built the city of Thanjavur and established the Chola kingdom in 850.
  • V ijayalaya’s illustrious successors starting from Parantaka I (907–955) to Kulothunga III (1163–1216) brought glory and fame to the Cholas. Parantaka Chola set the tone for expansion of the territory and broadened the base of its governance  .
  • Parantaka Chola suffered a defeat at the hands of the Rashtrakutas in the famous battle of Takkolam .


The Chahamanas or Chauhans of Ajmer

Pruthviraj Chauhan

  • They ruled south eastern Rajasthan.
  • They followed shkambari cult.
  • Capital city – Ajmer
  • Vishaladeva was the founder of this dynasty.
  • Vishaladeva’s nephew, Rai pithora or Prithiviraj was the most famous ruler of this dynasty.
  • Prithviraj married Samyukta , daughter of Jayachnadra( arch rival of Prithviraj).
  • Jayachandra invited Muhammad Ghori to invade India(or to defeat Prithviraj).
  • In 1191AD Prithviraj Chauhan defeated Muhammad Ghori in first battle of Tarain or Thaneshwar.
  • In 1192 AD Muhammad Ghori made fresh attack and defeated Prithviraj in second battle of Tarain.
  • In 1193 Jayachandra was killed by Ghori.
  • The Military conquests of Prithviraj have been described in the long epic poem Prithviraj Raso composed by Chand Bardai.
  • With the death of Prithviraj, the sun of Rajput glory set for ever

Solankis (Chaulkya Dynasty)

  • They ruled Gujrat area.
  • Capital- Anhilwara
  • Bhimadeva 1 ruled for about forty two years from 1021 – 1063 CE. During his time the famous Somanath Temple was plundered by Muhammad of Ghazni.
  • Bhima-I was followed by his son Karna in 1063-93 CE. He built numerous temples, dug tanks and founded a city after his name, now called as Ahmadabad.
  • Karna’s successor was Jayasimha Siddharaja (1093-1143 CE.).
  • One of the ruler Kuramapala is said to have rebuilt the temple of Somanath.
  • Bhimadeva 2 and Muladeva 2 defeated Muhammad Ghori in 1178 AD.
  • Solankis were dethroned by Waghelas.

Plundered Somnath temple

The Paramaras

  • They ruled malwa region /central India
  • Capital city – Dharanagar.
  • The Paramaras of Malwa rose on the ruins of the Pratihara empire of Kanauj.
  • The Paramara or Pawar clan was supposed to have emerged from the Agnikund of Mount Abu.

Statute of Rajbhoj

  • RajaBhoj was greatest in this dynasty (1018-1060).
  • Bhoja tried to regenerate Hindu society. He also fought against muslims.
  • Apart from a great warrior, he was an accomplished scholar.
  • He constructed Sanskrit college called Bhojshala at his capital.
  • His famous books were:
      1. Ayurveda Sangraha
      2. Yukti Kalpataru
      3. Samranga Suthradhara(deals with architecture).
  • He was also a great builder and is believed to have been built 104 temples and also a beautiful lake known as Bhojpur lake.
  • The power of the Paramara dynasty came to an end with the death of Raja Bhoja.

Delhi Sultanate

Delhi Sultanate (1206-1526AD)

After death of Mohammed Ghori  there were many contenders for throne, out of which  Qutb-ud-din Aibak ascended throne and started slave dynasty rule. The Muslim invasions into India had ultimately resulted in the establishment of Delhi Sultanate which existed from A.D. 1206 to 1526. Five different dynasties – the Slave, Khalji, Tughlaq, Sayyids
and Lodis – ruled under the Delhi Sultanate

  • Slave Dynasty (1206-1290)
  • Khalji Dynasty (1290-1320)
  • Thuglaq Dynasty (1320-1414)
  • Sayeed Dynasty (1414-1451)
  • Lodhi Dynasty (1451-1526)
  • First three dynasties belonged to Turkish race.
  • Sayeeds were Arabs and they proclaimed their descedency from Prophet Mohammed.
  • Lodis were Afghans.
  • Most number of Sultans were from first dynasty
  • Least number of Sultans from Lodi dynasty.
  • Thuglaqs ruled for long time and Khalji ruled for short time.
  • Thuglaqs ruled vast territory.
  • Sayeeds ruled least territory.

Economy During Delhi Sultanate Period

  • Land revenue was major source of income for administration.
  • The peasantry paid one third of their produce as land revenue, and sometimes even one half of the produce.
  • Agriculture formed the occupation of the bulk of the people.
  • The peasants produced a large variety of food crops, cash crops, fruits, vegetables and spices. They practiced advanced agricultural techniques such as crop rotation, double cropping, three crop harvesting, fruit grafting etc. Various types of artificial water lifting devices were also used for this purpose.
  • The Persian wheel was the most advanced water lifting device of this period.
  • During the Sultanate period, the process of urbanization gained momentum.
  • Construction of roads and their maintenance facilitated for smooth transport and communication. Particularly the royal roads were kept in good shape. Sarais or rest houses on the highways were maintained for the convenience of the travelers.
  • Cotton textile and silk industry flourished in this period.
  • Paper-making technology evolved by the Chinese and learnt by the Arabs was introduced in India during the rule of the Delhi Sultans.
  • Craft production was organized in villages as well as qasbas. There also existed imperial
  • These karkhanas were part of the royal establishment. These units produced commodities for the consumption of the royal household and the court, Generally, expensive and luxury items were produced here.
  • In the field of commerce India had trade links with contemporary central Asia, China, South-east Asia and Europe etc

Architecture during Delhi Sultanates

New architectural forms and styles were introduced in India during the medieval period. The synthesis of Indian and Islamic architectural features led to emergence of Indo-islamic architecture.

  • The arch and dome were new architectural additions of the period.
  • The use of lime-mortar in the construction of buildings and houses altered the building techniques
  • The development of the true arch was important feature of the architectural style of the period.
  • In the beginning, they converted temples and other structures demolished into mosques. For example, the Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque near Qutub Minar in Delhi was built by using the materials obtained from destroying many Hindu and Jain temples.
  • With the arrival of artisans from West Asia the arch and dome began to show up with precision and perfection. Gradually local artisans also acquired the skill. The tomb of Balban was adorned with the first true arch and the Alai Darwaza built by Alaud-din Khalji as a gateway to the Quwwatul-Islam Mosque is adorned with the first true dome.

 

Mohammad Gawan:

  • The Bahmani kingdom reached its peak under the guidance of Prime minister Mahmmad Gawan. He was a Persian merchant.
  • He was well-versed in Islamic theology, Persian, and Mathematics. He was also a poet and a prose-writer. 
  • He was also a military genius. He waged successful wars against Vijayanagar, Orissa and the sea pirates on the Arabian sea.
  • He built a Madarsa at Bidar in Persian architectural style.
  • This madarasa was great learning centre  with collection of 3000 manuscripts from all over the world.
  • Gawan’s progress was not tolerated by native Muslim leaders.They made false allegations. They made Sultan to punish him with death sentence.
  • After execution of Gawan Bahamani Sultanate started to decline.
  •  After  few years Sultanate gradually broke up into five independent kingdoms: Bijapur, Ahmadnagar, Berar , Golkonda and Bidar.

– Gawans madarasa, Bidar, Karnataka

Examples.

  • Monuments at Gulbarga: Shah bazaar mosque, Hafta Gumbaz, Jama maszid etc
  • At Bidar : Mohammad Gawan’s madarasa, solah khamba mosque, Rangeen mahal, Janata mahal etc
  • At Bijapur : Gol gumbaz(built by Mohammad Adil shah in 1656AD), Ibrahim roza, Bara Kaman, Anand mahal, Chand Bawdi etc.

GOL GUMBAZ, BIJAPUR

-GOL GUMBAZ, BIJAPUR

IBRAHIM ROZA, BIJAPUR

-IBRAHIM ROZA, BIJAPUR

BAHAMANI TOMBS AT BIDAR

-BAHAMANI TOMBS AT BIDAR

Virupaksha Temple

Hazara Rama Temple

Lotus Mahal

Religious Movements during Medieval Period

Bhakti Movement

The term ‘Bhakthi’ refers to ‘devotion’. As a movement, it emphasized on the mutual intense emotional attachment and love of a devotee toward a personal god and of the god for the devotee. This movement originated in South India in the 7th and 10th CE, mostly in the poems of Alvars and Nayanars. These poems were composed in Tamil; the poems were addressed to Lord Vishnu and Lord Shiva respectively

Bhakti soon spread to North India, appearing most notably in the 10th-century Sanskrit text the Bhagavata-Purana. It swept over east and north India from the 15th century onwards, reached its peak between the 15th and 17th century CE. The Bhakti Saints moved against the austerities propagated by the Buddhist and Jain schools and professed that ultimate devotion to god was the means to salvation.

The movement started as a response to the evil practices that had crept into Hinduism. Some of the other reasons which fueled the spread of the movement across the country were:

  1. The spread of Islam
  2. Emergence of great reformers
  3. Influence of Sufi sects
  4. Influence of Vaishnavism and Shaivism ideologies
  1. It preached equality. This was in stark contrast to the reality where the society was divided on the lines of religion, caste, gender etc. Ex: Disciples of Ramananda included a weaver, cobbler, barber
  2. It preached universal brotherhood built on values such as love, care, and affection etc for everyone in the society. Ex: Kabir preached universal brotherhood through his Dohas.
  3. It strove hard to rid the religion and society of evil practices that had crept into the society over the years. Ex: Guru Nanakcondemned caste difference and rituals like bathing in holy rivers. His idea of religion was highly practical and strictly moral.
  4. Perhaps the most important aspect of the movement was its emphasis on the route of ‘Bhakthi’ rather than superficial rituals as the mode to realize god and salvation.

Reference

  1.  Keay, John (2000). India: A History. Grove Press. pp. xx–xxi.
  2. ^ Murray, H.J.R. (1913). A History of Chess. Benjamin Press (originally published by Oxford University Press). ISBN 978-0-936317-01-4. OCLC 13472872.
  3. ^ History of Asia by B.V. Rao p.211
  4. ^ "The spread of Hinduism in Southeast Asia and the Pacific". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 16 January 2020. Retrieved 20 December 2016.
  5. ^ Berger et al. 2016, p. 107.
  6. ^ "mughal_index". www.columbia.edu. Archived from the original on 15 July 2019. Retrieved 14 June 2019.
  7. ^ Dodgson, Marshall G.S. (2009). The Venture of Islam. Vol. 3. University of Chicago Press. p. 62. ISBN 978-0-226-34688-5.
  8. ^ Streusand, Douglas E. (2011). Islamic Gunpowder Empires: Ottomans, Safavids, and Mughals. Philadelphia: Westview Press. ISBN 978-0-8133-1359-7.
  9. ^ Charles T. Evans. "The Gunpowder Empires". Northern Virginia Community College. Retrieved 28 December 2010.
  10. ^ Jump up to:a b c "India before the British: The Mughal Empire and its Rivals, 1526-1857". University of Exeter.



By  -
Gitanjali Ganesh Pawar
(B.ed First Year 2023-24)

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